A Different History Analysis Essay

In the poem â€Å"A Different History† by Sujata Bhatt, the poet speaks about culture identity, the importance of language, and religion. Bhatt describes the history of India during the British colonization days, from her point of view – from the side of the oppressed. Her strong diction portrays her emotions clearly. The varied structure and tone between the two stanzas of the poem highlights the differences between the cultures and emotions she feels. Bhatt creates an impression of freedom and peace when she describes her country in the first stanza. The two lines, â€Å"Here, the gods roam freely,† â€Å"Every tree is sacred† describe the Indian culture. They represent the â€Å"old India†, before the British had conquered it. However, in the next line, the mood of the poem differs. The poet emphasizes how wrong it is to disrespect books (nature) with the repetition of the words â€Å"a sin†. It portrays a different side to the Indian culture – one with customs and rules that must be followed. Bhatt addresses her own culture, (ll. 9-14) as it could symbolize the importance of maintaining the firm and religious beliefs of the Indian culture. See more: Experiment on polytropic process Essay Towards the end of the first stanza, the poem’s tone changes into one that is very pleading. There is a distinct change from a very calm tone to an interrogative one. â€Å"You must learn how to turn the pages gently / without disturbing Sarasvati, / without offending the tree / from whose wood the paper was made.† She seems as though she is commanding, or rather begging the oppressors to tread lightly, to adjust slowly to her culture, and to learn how to be gentle with it. This is the difference between the previous lines – at first she was addressing her culture, but in these lines she is referring to the British. She uses the terms â€Å"books†, â€Å"paper†, and â€Å"wood† to refer to her culture. The â€Å"tree† represents her ancestors, and â€Å"the paper† represents the future generation. These comparisons have a strong effect; they make the reader think about the way he or she is treating nature. In the second stanza, Bhatt indents to highlight the difference between the two things she’s talking about. The first stanza talks about how precious books are and how they should be respected. It gives us an insight to India’s old culture. On the other hand, in the beginning of the next stanza, she speaks about language and the â€Å"new  India†. Bhatt begins the second stanza with rhetorical questions. â€Å"Which language / has not been the oppressor’s tongue? / Which language / truly meant to murder someone?† The poet is trying to point out that many languages become the language of a country because they were once the language of the people that conquered them. She is referring to the loss of her native language. It adds a tinge of humor and mockery, since she is already speaking in English. The poem ends with an ironic statement. â€Å"the unborn grandchildren / grow to love that strange language.† Bhatt refers to herself as the â€Å"unborn grandchildren†. After expressing her feelings of anger about the murder of her language, she still writes in English – she still grew to love the English language. Bhatt clearly expresses what she feels about her culture. She shows that even though her culture is being destroyed and left behind because of foreign conquerors, she still remembers her motherland and the roots that link her to it. Through the different structured sections, she was able to show the readers the difference in culture and feelings she has.

Healthy Eating Habits

As a lifelong fitness enthusiast, I know the great importance of proper nutrition. Still being able to maintain a 30 inch waistline in my middle age, I think that I should have enough proven credibility to give you a few tips on how to build healthy eating habits and make them stick. Physical activity is only 50% of the overall health equation. The other 50% is nutrition. And without healthy eating habits, one will not be able to achieve good health and fitness. So it does depend on what you eat, and in this modern age of convenience and rushed daytime schedules, it’s easy to eat unhealthy.So here are some areas to consider that will help keep you on the right health track. Educate Yourself On Food And Healthy Eating Habits In order to eat healthy, you have to understand which foods are actually healthy and which ones are not. Learn from reading nutrition books and websites. Maybe even consult a dietician to get you started. Quite often, convenient foods are laced with too muc h salt, sugar and other ingredients, which are not considered healthy. These ingredients can often be hidden, so it is important as part of your education to learn to read food labels while at the grocer.Learn what ingredients to avoid, as major components are usually listed first in the food labels. Also verify and compare fat contents since many food items — which are promoted as ‘low fat’ or ‘low calorie’ — might very well still be quite high in fat. Being educated on what is contained within various types of food will help you weed out much of the unhealthy food you otherwise might end up eating. Learn To Substitute Foods And Ingredients In the old days, healthy eating meant a diet of bland-tasting food.I still remember that veggie burger that tasted like cardboard. Those days are thankfully gone as food technology has improved significantly. Many of the lower fat versions of food items (like cheese and frozen yogurt) taste just as good as their standard â€Å"full-fat† versions. One can also still cook great tasting food at home by simply substituting some of the ingredients. For example, use olive oil instead of butter for frying. Reduce salt by adding spices instead. Choose leaner cuts of meat and trim off visible fat before cooking.Something that I’ve done over the years is to drastically cut down on red meats at home and increase my intake of fish and poultry. By learning some great recipes with fish and poultry, I really don’t miss red meat all that much. One of the big areas to substitute is in snacking. Instead of candy bars or potato chips (or other junk food), try nuts or fruit. During the hot summers, I keep a supply of frozen grapes and if I feel the urge to nibble on something, I just grab one or two frozen grapes. Not only are these healthy, they are also refreshing during hot temperatures.Keep Related Goals In Mind In order to help you stick to healthy eating habits once you plan t hem, I find that it helps to keep related goals in mind. For example, each time I look in the mirror I make a point of looking at the condition of my abs. I want to maintain a half decent physical shape so what I see in the mirror is a constant reminder that I have to keep eating well. When I see other people around my age group or even younger than me who are out of shape, I always observe that they are not eating healthy.They usually eat foods that are high in fat. Keeping observant with this helps me even more to keep away from bad eating habits since I don’t want to end up like those poor folks who have let themselves go in that department. Another goal that is more specific is that I want to be able to perform well on the ski slope during the winter and maintain my martial arts all year round. I can generally tie in my overall performance levels in these sports back to my diet as one of the elements required.See if there are any related activities that you want to do wel l that you can somehow relate back to nutrition. Then keeping this top of mind will help you steer clear of bad foods. After all, you don’t want to blame poor performance in your favorite activities partly on bad diet. Be Around Others Who Eat Healthy This last point is related to having others help you in your goals. Sometimes it’s hard to eat right when all of your friends, family members and co-workers eat unhealthy. So make sure that you spend time with other people who already eat well.This will help inspire you to eat healthy as well. You’re basically using teamwork to help you achieve the goal of eating healthy. There’s really no magic in how to build healthy eating habits and make them stick. Good health is long term and the only way to achieve it is through all the little successes that add up when you have another healthy meal and finish another workout. Follow the above tips — as I do each and every day — during your meals and sna ck periods to ensure optimum health.

A Study Of Shaka Zulu And His Influence On Modern Zimbabwe

A Study Of Shaka Zulu And His Influence On Modern Zimbabwe SHAKA ZULU AND ZIMBABWE TODAY I am just back from a trip of about 1 200 kilometres around Zimbabwe. Everywhere I went I saw the empty skulls of a people driven off their land. Farm homes without windows, windows without curtains, gardens overgrown and dying, staff quarters empty and lifeless. Croplands idle and overgrown with weeds. Farm equipment rusting in the broken down sheds, hungry cattle without water, vultures having a feast day. It reminded me of the mfecane of the Transvaal Highveld in the early part of the 19th century in South Africa. The greatest Zulu leader in history, Shaka, often termed the Napoleon of African history, was responsible. Out of a tiny minority of only 2 000 people, he crafted the Zulu nation crushing and absorbing into the ranks of his impis the youth of the tribes to the north and south of his home and completely destroying the tribal peoples of the interior. Only three groups the Tswana of what is now Botswana, the Sotho of what is now Lesotho and the Dhlamini clan in what is now known as Swaziland, halted him in his ambitions. His genius lay in a few simple military rules when a boy reached the age of 15 he joined a regiment or impi. Experienced and successful warriors, who passed on to their young wards the knowledge they had accumulated in numerous raids on other tribes, led the impi. Their reward was that they kept most of what they took by force, and although all cattle belonged to Shaka, they were allowed to use the cattle for their own ends. When Shaka felt they had proved their manhood, they were given the right to choose girls, to marry and establish their own homes. They were given land and the use of cattle to enable them to become established. Their bondage to Shaka was life long. They were utterly ruthless and it must have been quite a sight to see an impi on a mission running in unison, their feet thundering out in rhythm on the dry African veld. When I was a boy growing up in the eastern parts of the Matopo Hills, some of the older men in the villages still wore the ring in their hair to signify their status as ndunas or officers in the Zulu war machine. In the case of the people I lived amongst it was an offshoot of the Zulu empire the Ndebele of southern Zimbabwe who had come to Zimbabwe in about 1820 after completing the mfecane on the highveld of South Africa. What Shaka had ordered was that the people of the highveld be destroyed so that they could never again threaten the hegemony of the Zulu nation in the Natal coastlands. At his order, the impis of the Zulu clans moved up into what are today the Transvaal and the Free State and they murdered every man, woman and child they could find. Driving their cattle and other assets back to the Zulu heartland as gifts for Shaka and his senior chiefs. Only selected women were kept alive to be taken as wives on return at the pleasure of Shaka. It was ruthless and self-perpetuating so long as the Zulus could hold together and enforce discipline. Its success made the Zulus the dominant social, economic and political force in southern Africa. Its tentacles spread as far north as Tanzania and Malawi, as far south as the growing influence of the white man would permit. At the start of the 19th century, the Afrikaner Boers started the Great Trek northwards eventually stopping in Chimanimani in eastern Zimbabwe. When their wagons crested the escarpments that sheltered the hinterland across the Vaal and Orange rivers, they found nothing but empty kraals and dry skulls. At a recent meeting in Pretoria with their South African counterparts, the Zimbabwe Minister of Foreign Affairs told his South African hosts that the land reform process is over in Zimbabwe and they would not be taking any more land from white farmers. He then appealed to the South Africans to help them get compensation for the displaced farmers. In fact there is little left now on the highveld of Zimbabwe where the bulk of the countries 4 000 commercial farmers had once been. Perhaps some 15 per cent remain shell shocked and cowed, ready to run at the slightest hint that they are coming back. Like the tribes of the hinterland in South Africa there was no help in the face of overwhelming force, no rule of law to shield them from the loss of everything they owned and held dear. One interpretation of the word mfecane is forced migration or a pogrom. Can anyone deny that Mugabe has done to the white farmers and the people who worked for them, just what Shaka did to the tribal peoples of the South African highveld? The fact that he has done this at the start of the 21st century, 200 years after Shaka, 50 years after the formation of the UN and the Declaration of Human Rights. 22 years after the signing of an agreement and the introduction of a negotiated constitution designed to prevent these sorts of excesses. Now just to round off the exercise we hear the government is uplifting thousands of farm workers and their families and dumping them without food or shelter near the Mozambique border in the north and east. Its forced migration or another mfecane. What Shaka did not know at the time was that he was opening up the way for a new empire to become established on the highveld. An Afrikaner empire with superior weapons and great personal courage and determination. What he also did not know was that under the feet of his impis lay the richest mineral beds in the world and that one-day in the paths cleared by the Zulu warriors, new warriors would ride. Just as ruthless and cunning, using money as their weapon and trading their rights for privilege across the globe. Smuts, Rhodes, Beit, Oppenheimer, men who would influence world affairs for another 150 years. Perhaps in the same way, a new nation is growing up in Zimbabwe. Its path cleared by the ruthless and cruel actions of another African tyrant, Mugabe. The principles he is using are the same, the effects similar, the object identical. Perhaps the outcome too, will be similar, a new nation will rise up in place of that being destroyed and it will be better, richer and more permanent than the fragile hegemony that Shaka thought would last forever. Tyranny never survives its perpetrators one day, one day soon, Mugabe will be swept aside by the very forces that he seeks to control. Then we will get the chance to build a better life for everyone that remains on the highveld in Zimbabwe. The highveld in our case is not geographical its based on principle. The principle of a nation foundered on the rule of law, of a constitution to which our people hold universal allegiance as the highest law in the land. The basic right of every man, women and child to life, liberty and respect, a deep commitment to democratic principles and to the creation of an open and transparent society. A pipe dream? No it need not be would the people of the South African highveld ever dreamed that one day a third of the economic power of Africa would come out of the area known as the whitewater ridge in the Transvaal? No of course not, but within 100 years of the terrifying nights of the mfecane, this was already a reality and Shaka only a memory.

Identification of managerial, financial, legal and ethical Essay - 5

Identification of managerial, financial, legal and ethical implications - Essay Example Based on such a perspective, this paper analyses the managerial, financial, legal and ethical implications associated the shortage of nurses in the industry. As already mentioned above, nurses indeed play a crucial role in the provision of healthcare services in the industry. Such an aspect is evident based on the fact that nurses usually have a direct link to patients, who are ideally the greatest stakeholders in the sector (Huber, 2006). Considering the significance of the nurses in the sector, any shortage would indeed substantively pose great challenges towards service delivery in the industry. On the managerial perspective, it is clear that the success of any organization is usually linked to the managerial capabilities. With increased shortage of nurses, the quality of service in the sector is obviously expected to deteriorate, which would then negatively affect the managerial performance of the industry (Huston, 2009). Financially, there is indeed another great challenge that the industry faces as a result of the shortage of nurses. Like in many other sectors, better finances are usually attributed to better performance as customers are in most instances attracted by quality service provisions. Based on such a perspective, it is substantively clear that with the shortage of service providers, the quality of service is likely to reduce marginally. Shortage of nurses means that the few available nurses are overwhelmed with the duties they are expected to perform thereby causing distress in their performances. Once distressed, the nurses are then unable to perform at their best, therefore, reducing the quality of services (Cowen and Moorhead, 2011). With reduced quality of service delivery, fewer individuals would be seeking for medical services from a facility that faces a shortage of the service providers, an aspect, which would affect the financial

Abraham Lincoln, Slavery, and the Civil War Essay

Abraham Lincoln, Slavery, and the Civil War - Essay Example Going by Lincoln’s second inaugural address which took place on March 4th, 1865, one can cogently defend the standpoint that as the 16th President of the US, he was interested in reconstructing the Union. In the first place, it can be considered that although he wanted reconstruction, yet he preferred a pragmatic approach. This is seen in the manner in which Lincoln tried to eschew sentiments that would be indicative of punitive measures against the South, even after its defeat. In a way that betrays ingenuity, Lincoln sought to cast both sides as subject to imperfection, in a clever way of toning down the anger against the South. For instance, Lincoln states that â€Å"†¦ Both sides dreaded the war and sought to avert it (Johnson 64)† Lincoln also said that â€Å"Neither of the parties expected the war, its magnitude, its duration which had already been attained (Ibid 64).† Lincoln also goes further to state that both sides â€Å"†¦ Read the same Bible and invoked the same God (Ibid 65).† Nevertheless, all the above are more of vestiges of a pragmatic approach to constructivism than a show of appeasement of desperation for unification. The prospects of Lincoln’s constructivism are also underscored by the very speech that others would merely pass as unifying. The constructivist aspect of the speech is also underlined by the pieces that are found within the same speech. In a particular instance, he lambasts the prospects of slavery which was very popular and full fledged in the South. In an instance, he quoted Jesus Christ in the Gospel according to St. Matthew, XVIII: VII to state that although offenses were inevitable, yet the person who acts as the perpetrator or harbinger of the same, would be in trouble or deep danger (Johnson 65). In the same wavelength, Lincoln said that if God was willing that the war continues, so that all the wealth that slave owners had amassed be destroyed and all the blood that had been drawn by the taskmaster’s whip be aveng ed, the same would still prove the justice of God’s judgments (Johnson 65). To show for the seriousness of the matter, Loewen (37) explains that there are certain measures that Lincoln followed through to show that he was interested in the reconstruction of the American nation. The first and the most prominent was the role he played in the adopting of the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution on July 9th, 1868. As a matter of fact, Amendment XIV is one of the most popular Reconstruction Amendments. Among many things, Amendment XIV reconstructed the definition of citizenship to include blacks. This totally overruled the 1857 ruling of the Supreme Court, which in the case, Dred Scott v. Sandford had ostracized the black race from the American citizenship. This amendment had within it, the clause that mandated every state of the US to accord every of its citizen with equal protection and rights, without any discrimination (Arnesen 20). According to Loewen (38), even crusad ers against gender discrimination found much help in Amendment XIV since it set the stage for the 1954 Brown v. Board and the Reed v. Reed which totally proscribed all manner of discriminations. The prospects of the Fourteenth Amendment is being seen as a tool that was used for restructuring or reconstruction is also illustrated by its spelling of the conditions under which citizenship could be extended to an individual or revoked. This proved to be a double-edged sword since it excluded many prominent members of the Confederacy from the government. This is a shift away from unification attempts. In the same vein, Lincoln’s speech and behavior relevant to the speech cannot leave an

Critical Thinking Argument Paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critical Thinking Argument Paper - Assignment Example Age has never been an indicator of a person’s ability to produce results. While at the workplace, employees should be assessed basing on their capability to produce results but not on their age. There is no logic in an argument suggesting that, if the elderly are employed, the younger generation would lack the opportunity to work in organizations. In fact such a view is an argument in fallacy. Workplace principles demand that each and every employee should be treated fairly at his/her place of work. The elderly employees at the workplace have the right to employment just like the young. The principles of nondiscrimination at the place of work, therefore, form basic components of the human rights. Such rights should only be ignored if there is proof that continued employment of a particular person results in no significant benefit for the organization he/she works for. In order to fulfill the provisions in the principles that govern workplace discipline, an aged person may be replaced by a younger person only when the aged lacks the manual strength or concentration to effectively perform his/her roles. Discriminatory practices at the workplace affect the economy negatively regardless of the specific gains that may be realized by an organization that engages in such discrimination. Discrimination may result in relevant skills being disposed off. Such disposal may result in losing skills that would have contributed uniquely to the success of the organization. Some aged workers may have a great experience in the running of matters at the workplace which may not be the case with the young employees. In such situations age discrimination may result in organizations incurring economic losses. This in turn results in jobs being matched to workers in an inefficient manner and thus wastage of talents. The participation of the elderly in activities at the workplace results in correct matching of jobs with workers

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC'S). Economic Indicators Article

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC'S). Economic Indicators - Article Example The countries that are member of this council are as follows: †¢ Saudi Arabia †¢ Kuwait †¢ Bahrain †¢ Qatar †¢ United Arab Emirates †¢ Sultanate of Oman (Sheikh Mohammed, 2012) GCC being an oil-based region is provided with several opportunities to enhance its profit ratio and to play an essential and pivotal role in providing the world with oil. With the largest crude oil reserves in GCC (486.6 billion barrels), the member countries play the leading role in the world. In addition, GCC is the largest producer and exporter of petroleum due to which the region enjoyed fascinating and spectacular economic boom from the year 2002 to 2008 (The Economist Intelligence, 2011). The dominant role of the GCC countries in the world provided the region with an opportunity to increase the economy to $1.1 trillion (triple in size) during the same years. GCC region is the largest producer and exporter of oil and petroleum due to which the GCC countries account for almost 52 percent of the total OPEC oil reserves. 3. GDP GROWTH RATE The growth rate of the GCC region relies highly on the production and export of oil and petroleum to countries across the globe. The GDP growth rate of the GCC has been fascinating and outstanding from 2002-2008 and even after 2012 (IMF, 2012). Throughout 2002 to 2008 the region was provided with an opportunity to increase its economy threefold (Fox, 2011). The GCC countries enhanced its GDP from 400,000 (Mn US$) in the year 2003 to more than 1,100,000 (Mn US$) in the year 2008. ... Meanwhile, the region witnessed a growth rate of 14.2 percent in the year 2007 (Fox, 2011). Such an increase in the growth rate in the year 2002-2008 was highly dependent on the strongly increasing oil demand in the world (Fox, 2011). Some of the factors that contributed to such an extensive performance include better geo-political environment, boost in privatization of activities, increase in the Central Bank’s assets along with the strengthening of the GCC’s corporate sector. On the other hand, the GCC region has witnessed a decline in the growth rate due to the rising financial and economic crisis (Bachellerie, 2012). As a result, the oil market in the countries across the globe turned from cash cow to dog. The financial and economic crisis led to the decline in nominal GDP by -19.3 percent. Meanwhile, the real GDP declined from 6.4 percent to 0.5 percent in the years 2008 and 2009 respectively. With the global recovery of the oil market, the GCC region once again wi tnessed promising growth rate. The forecasted nominal GDP of the GCC was 380.5 (USD bn) in the year 2012 whereas the Real GDP (forecasted) for the same year was 5.3 (% y/y). Figure 1: GDP of GCC Countries Source: Gulf Investment Corporation, 2011) Figure 2: GCC’s GDP Growth Source: Haque, 2012 4. Inflation Rate The inflation rate in the GCC was quite low from 2002 to 2003 due to the prudent monetary and fiscal policies. Moreover, the access and availability of the goods and services in the region ensured low inflation rate. This could be witnessed by the 0.2 percent inflation rate which increased to 2.1 percent during 2001-2004. The inflation rate was 6.7 percent in the year 2007 which reached 10.7 percent in the year 2008 (IMF, 2011). The increase in inflation rate was a

Climate Change Displacing People and Animals Research Paper

Climate Change Displacing People and Animals - Research Paper Example Studies that were previously conducted posit to the effect that the phenomenon of climate change can be mainly attributed to the activities of a human kind which immensely contribute to the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. There remains confusion with regards to universal policies that can be implemented in order to check that the activities of men are under control such that they do not wantonly continue damaging the climate (Makombe 1993). It can thus be noted that the issues of climate change have become topical in many societies during the contemporary period, but there is need to generate more knowledge about the major effects and causes of climate changes such as global warming. A holistic approach has to be taken in an attempt to combat this threat to the climate. In essence, there is a need to recognize that conservation of the environment and development are both necessary to human life and are also interdependent. It can be seen from this argument that conservation of the environment cannot ignore the needs of the human beings while development projects by human beings that ignore the limits of the environment will be doomed (Gore 2006). There is a need to create a fine balance between the activities of human beings and the need to maintain a safe environment. Such a holistic approach may be difficult to attain but it is necessary as far as minimizing the negative impacts of human activities on climate are concerned. This paper, therefore, seeks to critically analyze the concept of climate change and its impact on the welfare of the people. The paper will begin by reviewing the published literature that is related to the topic area. The bulk of the reviewed literature will be centered on the concept of global warming which is central to the phenomenon of climate change.  

Successful leaders not limited by limited by leadership styles Assignment

Successful leaders not limited by limited by leadership styles - Assignment Example Second, there is power centralization if the subordinates lack experience, knowledge or skills to make specified decisions. However, this style is becoming rare because employees are more knowledgeable than before. Finally, subordinates can be indiscipline and insensitive in making decisions, and since some decisions are so sensitive in time and value, the competent leader has to make them. Free-rein leadership style is a kind of leadership where there is complete delegation. Unlike autocratic leadership, here there is power decentralization to the subordinates. Such leadership is in operation in Google where every employee is a leader. With such leadership style, there is full utilization of subordinates as well as job satisfaction. However, it is dangerous if the employees fail to consult because sometimes their actions result into chaos. The main reasons for Google to adopt this style are; first, most of the employees in Google are the best. They have all what is required for doing their jobs perfectly. Since there is confidence in the skilled employees, they have, free in style fits the organization. Second, Google employees are goal oriented and willing to assume responsibilities. Companies that advocates for accountability stand a chance in using free rein leadership. Finally, employee participation in decision-making improves their morale. Morale and job satisfaction are points of concern in Google because they believe self-motivated employees give their best. Despite the different leadership styles adopted by most successful leaders, they all share some things. Successful leaders are the best decision makers. Leadership is a behavior learned within time through the different encounters and experiences one comes across. Leaders who have had some experience in decision-making make the best decisions because they

Vanishing (Disappearing) Middle Class in U.S.A Essay

Vanishing (Disappearing) Middle Class in U.S.A - Essay Example According to the research, the shift is being attributed to a fall in wages and job market that is slowly weakening. In a new report that was published by Autor (2010), the work force in the U.S.A is rapidly splitting into two main categories, the high paying jobs and the corresponding low paying jobs. In this regard, it can be noticed that demographics about the middle income earners is missing. The effect of the disappearing middle class is taking a toll on America’s young men who are turning out to be potential employees. This situation simply means that irrespective of the field which they would want to join, they have to increase their educational levels to secure employment chances. Having high school qualification alone may not be enough to warrant a good job unlike in the past. Despite of the many disadvantages that have been associated with this trend, there is a group of people who seem to have benefited. Advanced degree holders have been having gains in the job opportunities available. This is just for the fact that job opportunities have remained a preserve of the highly educated or the low class. For this reason, the few that have gained employment in this season have benefitted from the better remunerations associated with the jobs (Wessel, 2011). One of the key culprits for this alarming development is technology. It has been witnessed that knowledge and skills exhibited by the middle class group are fast becoming irrelevant or obsolete with respect to industry needs. The introduction of computer and robot technology has meant that clerical works in companies and assembly line productions can be done by few people who have the required knowledge to run the machines (Price, 2010). Introduction of computer technology has led to a sharp reduction in the amount of human capital in companies. The jobs that have been left available are only those requiring low education, something that has led to an increase in the low

Google Searching Essay Example for Free

Google Searching Essay Searching for information on Google is like trying to find a needle in a haystack. Is that true? Google was founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin in 1998. They got its name from the mathematical term googol (a number that has a one followed by a hundred zeros. The intention of Goggle was to help control the all the information on the web. That being said they have made searching for information pretty easy to navigate. All someone has to do is type in a word or phrase and the information is there instantly. It has convience over the conventional library of the 19th century. You are often on time restraints while using the library and only have limited resources. As technology grows searching for information becomes more efficient and less time consuming. How is searching in a specific database, such as Ashford Library different from searching in Bing, Google, or Yahoo? Roughly 1.46 billion people use the internet. (Mark D. Bowles, Introduction to Computer Literacy,p.6.4). Just in the U.S. there are 2.27 million users, which is 75% of the population. The main difference is the type of database each search engines uses. Ashford Library is a proprietary database in which only those who belong to the institution can benefit . Google and the others are a public domain database which means anyone has access to them. In my opinion the two are totally different. One is for a specific group while the other is open to everyone.

Black Box And White Box Comparison Computer Science Essay

Black Box And White Box Comparison Computer Science Essay Testing is an important activity for checking the correctness of system implementations. We need to find out bugs in the system on unit level as well as on the integration or system level of testing. At unit level, we use white box testing approach to find bugs in the developed code whereas at integration or system level we use black box testing approach to validate the system functionality. In this paper, we will focus on these two widely used black box and white box approaches of software testing. We will compare various features of both approaches and find out which approach is useful on different stages of testing to find bugs in the softwares. Software testing is an important component of software engineering field and very important technique for improving software quality. There are two main techniques for software testing, white box testing and black box testing. Black box testing deals with the functionality of the system and is based on the software requirements. Black box testing is performed in user perspective while giving some input data and getting the valid output. White box testing is concerned with the inner design and structure of the system. White box testing is very helpful to find bugs in the softwares at initial level of testing. A couple of papers describe the black box and white box testing techniques while highlighting different features of both techniques [1] [2]. These papers also tell the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches and explained on which stages these approaches can be used. The papers also mentioned the testing cost and the tester skills for both the testing types. In this paper, we will look into detail in black box and white box testing. We will highlight their main technique and different features for both approaches. Based on their features, we will take a comparison of both techniques and we will analyze which technique is feasible for testing on certain stages of the software testing. As white box testing is used on the unit level and black box testing is used in integration or system level testing. So, using only white box or black box testing is not sufficient to find all bugs in the software. Both approaches have their own importance in testing softwares and finding bugs on different levels of the software testing. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 of this paper describes black box testing method in detail. Section 3 includes the detail of white box testing approach used to test software projects. Section 4 describes a comparison of both the testing approaches white box and black box testing. Section 5 concludes the paper. BLACK BOX TESTING Black box testing treats the system as a  black-box, so it doesnt explicitly use Knowledge of the internal structure or code. [1] Therefore black box testing is performed while giving inputs and getting the expected output. Black box testing verifies the correctness of the softwares behaviour and is referred as behaviour coverage. The focus of the black box testing is on functionality of the system. Black box testing requirement includes software requirements, uses cases only executable program and its data. These requirements are usually met during the middle phase of the development lifecycle when large pieces of code begin to operate together. Black box testing is performed when we do not have the source code. As the programming completes, its packaged as larger components of the code. This package is built by compiling, linking or binding the executable codes to demonstrate the collective code execution behaviour with inputs and outputs. [3] Here is the Black box testing diagram. Input Test data System Output Test results Diagram .1, Black box Testing Black Box Testing Techniques Developers usually focus on the positive testing by validating the expected behaviour of the code. Tester add values to black box testing by executing both positive and negative testing because the tester knows that most of the defects are found from the unexpected behaviour. Here are the techniques of Black box testing. Equivalence class technique In this technique the software data is divided into partitions of data and test cases are derived from it. This technique ensures that test cases are derived to cover partitioned data. According to this method one test case is enough for each partition to check the behaviour of the program. By using equivalence class technique test cases can be reduced because all test cases of a partition will not find any new faults in the program. The recommended black box approach for selecting equivalence class values includes values at the beginning, in the middle and end of the data range. We can understand this technique more with the help of the example. [3] Let us assume that a security system have to validate 5000 log on IDs when in production. Now tester can validate each logon IDs or on the other hand tester knows that there are only three categories of IDs clerks, supervisors, managers. Now sample from each category will be sufficient for the validation. Let us consider 50 logon IDs from each category. During validation if any of the 50 logon IDs for a given category is not accepted, increase the sample size of logon IDs for that category and continue testing. If the initial samples of 150 IDs for all three categories are correctly accepted then the tester has achieved the desired test results using only 3% of the possible test data. Boundary Value Analysis technique In this technique the analysis is extended of beginning and ending inputs value possibilities of an equivalence class. The boundary values are around the beginning and ending of a portion and functional errors from input and output data occurs around these boundaries. The boundary analysis begins by identifying smallest value increment in a specific equivalence class. This increment of smallest value is called boundary value epsilon. [3] It is used to calculate +/- value around the beginning and ending values in an equivalence class. If we take the above example then the boundary value for each category would be 49, 50, 51 for 50 value and 149, 150, 151 for 150 equivalence value. Equivalence classes remain smaller even by the addition of boundary test values. Expected result coverage Technique The expected result coverage technique focus on output test values for related input values. To get the expected results we need to find the business rules in the application requirement. The difference between expected results and actual results for any combination of input should cause further analysis to determine if the difference is faulty test design, unclear ambiguous rules or program error. [3] Error Guessing In this technique, Tester judge where bugs or errors can be hidden. Tester tests the application with the past experience and creates test cases to validate the different tasks. There is no specific tool used for this technique. Advantages of Black Box testing Here are the advantages to black box testing: Ease of Use Black Box testing is not involved in the inner functionality of the application so it is easy for the tester to create test cases by simple working through the application. Black box testers dont need high skills in programming rather low skilled persons can do black box testing. Quicker Test Case Development Test cases can be developed quickly because tester concerns only with the user interface. There is no need to identify the internal paths that may be involves in a specific process. The tester will cover the UI paths that a user may take so it makes quicker test development. [2] Simplicity Using black box testing even complex applications can be tested, that focuses on valid and invalid inputs and ensuring that the correct out puts are received. Issues of Black box testing The Followings are the few issues of black box testing approach. Fragility User interface interaction makes script fragile. The reason is because the UI may not be rendered constantly from time to time on different platforms. Unless the tool is capable dealing with difference in UI rendering, it is likely that test cases will fail to execute properly. [2] Lack of introspection One of the drawbacks of the black box testing is that it cannot look into inner logic of the application unlike the white box testing. Therefore black box testing can never test an application fully. Failure reason Another issue with the black box testing, it does not found the reason of the failure. It does not tell what causes the failure in the system. So pure black box testing does not guarantee 100% coverage of the tested component. WHITE BOX TESTING The white box testing involves the inner logic of the program and the test cases are constructed from the source code of the program. It is based on the knowledge of how the system is implemented. White box testing includes analyses of data flow, control flow, information flow, coding practice, exception and error handling within the system, to test the intended and unintended behaviour of the system. [1] White box testing requires access to the source code. When the code is developed, white box testing can be performed any time in the life cycle but it is good practice to perform white box testing during the unit level testing. The first step in white box testing is to analyze available design documentation, source code knowing what make software secure is a fundamental requirement. Second, to create tests that exploits software. Third thing is to perform testing effectively; testers need to know the techniques and tools used for the white box testing. White box testing normally do by the developers as an extension of code debugging activity. The developers usually focus on making the code work, which gives them the tendency to debug only the code they know works. Software testers add value to developer debugging activity by helping the developer plan and debug more of the code than usual. The more the logic test coverage attain while debugging, the fewer the defect will be discovered later by other kinds of testing. The earlier these defects can be discovered, the less expensive they are to correct. Research has not yet produced a white box approach that guarantees 100% logic test coverage for all situations. [3] Here is the diagram for white box testing. Static Analysis Manual Automated Inspection Walkthrough Symbolic Execution Static Verification Diagram .2, White Box Testing White Box Testing Techniques: White box testing verifies the correctness of the softwares statements, code paths, conditions, loops and data flow. The prerequisites of white box testing include the software requirements, use cases, the executable program, its data and its source code. Here are the techniques used for white box testing. Statement Coverage Technique This technique focuses on determining what percentage of the source code lines in a program has been executed. If there are 5,000 lines of source code in a program and you can determine manually or with a tool that you have executed 4,537 lines of source code, then you have achieved 90.7% statement coverage. A hypothesis in this context is that the higher the source code test coverage, the fewer will be the defects found later. The practical conclusion is the that new, unexecuted code lines are just a software time bomb waiting to explode at the most inopportune moment in production. [3] The question is not if they will explode, only the question is when. Branch coverage technique This technique focus on determining what percentage of source code branch (true/false) logic in a program has been executed. Suppose if there are 1,500 source code branch points in a program and we can determine manually or with a tool that we have executed 1,145 branches by counting true and false branch executions separately then we have achieved 76.3% branch point coverage. [3] The co-occurrence of unexecuted branches with unexecuted statements is found most often in untested error recovery logic. Testing simple condition branches before the compound condition branches requires fewer initial test actions. The developer needs to choose a test value that will force a true branch and any test value that will force a false branch, just two test values per branch. Compound Condition Coverage Technique This technique extends the branch coverage technique to branches with compound conditions, ones that contain combinations of Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT along with pairs of parenthesis, possible nested. In this technique, the challenge is to identify all the test value combinations that will evaluate to true and false for every simple condition and every Boolean combination of simple condition. Path Coverage Technique This technique focus on determining what percentage of source code paths in a program have been traversed completely. A source code path is the sequence of program statements from the first executable statement through a series of arithmetic, replacement input/out, branch and looping statements to a return/stop/end/exit statement. [3] If there are 943 different paths through a program and we can determine manually or with a tool that we have executed 766 of them, then we have achieved 81% path coverage. The underlying hypothesis is that the higher the path test coverage, the fewer will be the defect found later. Loop Coverage Technique This technique focus on determining what percentage of source code loop in a program has been cycled completely. In the programming languages, there are several loops like DO, FOR, WHILE and UNTIL. Some of the loops are a clever construct of IF statements and subsequent returns to these IF statements. The objective of the loop testing is to force the program through the loop zero time, one time, n/2 times (n is terminal loop value) n times and n+1 times. The one-time loop, n/2-time loop and n-time loop validate expected loop response at the beginning, middle and end of the longest loop. The zero-time and n+1 time loop tests for unexpected and inappropriate looping conditions. Advantages of White Box Testing Here is the list of the few common advantages of white box testing. Introspection Introspection is the ability to look inside the application and tester can identify objects programmatically. [2] It is helpful when UI changes frequently or the UI yet not known, It allows testing to proceed. In some situations it decreases the fragility of the test script provided the names of an object do not change. Stability White box testing delivers greater stability and reusability of test cases if the objects that include an application never change. Thoroughness White box testing is very helpful technique, where it is essential to know that every path has been thoroughly tested, that every possible internal interaction has been examined. [2] This technique gives tester the ability to be more thorough in terms of how much an application they can test. Issues with White box testing The issues with the white box testing are listed below: Complexity: The tester must have detailed programmatic knowledge of the application in order to test with white box testing technique. White box testing involves the internal logic of the applications code so this complexity requires highly skilled testers to develop test cases. Fragility Although introspection overcomes the issue of application changes breaking test scripts but the reality is that often the names of objects changes during product development. White box testing requires test scripts to be tightly tied to the underlying code of an application means that changes to the code will often cause white box test scripts to break. [2] Then it introduces a high degree of script maintenance into the testing process. Integration Due to the highly integrated nature of white box testing tools many do not provide support for more than one platform usually windows. In those companies where companies have applications that run on other platforms, they either need to use different tool or need to test manually. [2] COMPARING BLACK BOX AND WHITE BOX TESTING FEATURES Black box testing based on requirements, therefore also called behavioral or functional testing technique, whereas white box testing is based on the internal logic and structure of the project therefore also called structural testing. Black box testing creates test data without any aspect of the software structure, so this technique does not consider how the test object has been implemented but what its requirements are. On the other hand, in white box testing, the tests are derived from the structure of the tested object and tests are based on the actual implementation. [5] Black box testing methodology is used in integration level or system level because it does not need to look into source code but just need to execute a system by using input data and output result. On the other hand, white box testing is used for logical and analytic test in unit test level. Black box tester can be less technical in programming and has no bonds with the code so tester perception is very simple white box tester needs programming skills to identify and test all paths through the software. [3] In black box testing, test case can be designed as soon as the functional specifications are complete whereas in white box testing, test can be designed as the program code is developed. Black box tester used to verify contradiction in actual system and the specifications whereas white box tester chooses test case inputs to exercise paths through the code and determines the appropriate output. It reveals all errors hidden in the code. [6] Black box testing focuses on results and the user experience whereas white box testing focuses on the internal working and making sure that the application works as efficiently as possible. White box testing is time consuming especially when applied to the whole system but it directly identifies more bugs in the software. In black box testing, inputs need to be from large sample space to find expected results. There are some bugs that cannot be found using only black box or only white box testing. In black box, it is difficult to identify all possible inputs in the limited testing time so writing test cases is slow and difficult. In white box testing, it is not possible to test each and every path of the loop in a program so exhaustive testing is impossible for large systems. In black box testing some of the code may not be reachable without extraordinary measures, whereas white box testing does not tell if all the functionality has been implemented in the program. The comprehensive test coverage may be achieved only when black box and white box testing techniques are combined because both methodologies include various benefits of application testing. CONCLUSION As discussed above, Black box testing validates the functionality of the software and ensures that the system is working correctly according to the user requirements. Black box testing is less expensive as compare to white box testing and can be performed by the less technical individuals but Black box approach does not cover the comprehensive testing of the system. On the other hand, White box testing checks the internal structure, inner loops, conditions and logic of the code to verify the working of the code. White box testing is expensive and is performed by the skilled and technical individuals, but as the software size is getting huge, it is difficult to check out all parts of source code during integration or system level testing. As both testing methods have some pros and cons when applied on certain levels of testing. So using only one testing approach cannot guarantee bug free software. In the conclusion, we can say that the comprehensive testing of the system may be achieved by using both of the techniques for the software testing. White box testing can be used with black box testing to improve overall test effectiveness.

Energy Crisis In Pakistan Environmental Sciences Essay

Energy Crisis In Pakistan Environmental Sciences Essay Pakistan has been facing an energy crisis since the last few years, which has seriously affected its people. The gap between demand and supply has been constantly widening. People are spending sleepless nights in summer. Shortage of power supply has assumed the role of a fundamental necessity, becoming a serious policy dilemma. It needs sustained efforts and long-term policies to overcome this crisis. Sincere effort is required to ensure sustained and consistent supply of energy. Pakistan is generating 48 percent of its electricity from gas, 33 percent from hydel, 17 percent from oil, two percent from nuclear and one percent from coal. If we examine the figures, it is clear that Pakistan is underutilizing its natural resources to generate electricity. The power crisis is proving to be unbearable day by day. The sad state of affairs is that despite having enormous renewable resources of energy, Pakistan has to import a huge amount of hydrocarbons from abroad to meet its energy needs. Pakistan, a country blessed with many natural resources for the past few years has been facing the problem of load-shedding due to the electricity demand being more then the production capacity of the national power grid. The first thing to do about it is to look at the recent power history of the country to get a better idea of how it was created and its many causes. In 1996 Pakistan had the ability to produce about 15000 Megawatts of electricity which was more then enough for our own needs and we had a surplus of power present in the country and talks were taking place with neighbouring countries in which we would export electricity to them. So considering that how is that after just 14 years later we have reached such a condition that we dont even have enough power to meet our needs? The first and foremost issue is that the rulers since 1996 did not bother to make any new power projects and to add additional power to the natural grid. In 14 years our production capacity has increased by just 1000-2000 Megawatts which reflects poorly on us as a country and our leadership for not having the foresight to see this issue looming. The other is that the country is rich in natural resources and we have not all invested in the alternative sources available to make our power generation . We have sun for the most part of the year in majority parts of the country and one alternative is to tap into the potential of solar power to produce energy since in it the cost of producing energy is very less as the biggest source (SUN) is free and using its heat wont cost anything. The other alternative available to us is the wind source in which we can make wind mills or wind turbines and have power generated from them which will again be quite cheap as we are just using the energy of the wind costing nothing to use. Since we generate about 40% of our total power by hydro electricity we can look at this source to produce power as well. It has a start up cost and after that producing electricity from it is very cheap aswell since we are just using the water to produce electricity. This might not be the best choice for us since in winter when the water supply gets low then we wont be able to produce electricity by it and which can lead to a power shortage. Nuclear Reactors are another option available for us to produce electricity by using them but its not very advisable for us since they have a very high building cost and generating that much capital to make a lot of nuclear power plants will be almost impossible for a developing country like us which already has a shortage of funds and capital. But having a little of our total production by nuclear power can be seen as a good thing. Most of our electricity is produced by thermal power plants which burn oil or gas and then produce electricity. Since the country is deficient in oil resources we import oil for this purpose and pay a heavy import bill for the oil. The intelligent thing is to move away from the power production from oil and gas since the raw material necessary for the functioning of the power plant is so expensive to get. And seeing the gas crisis in the country currently with a gas shortage predicted to worsen in the coming years we should start moving away from the gas power plants as well and use our gas for more important purposes. We have one of the largest coal deposits in the world in Tharparkar Desert, Sindh so why we have not started utilizing that remains a mystery. The power generation in the thermal power plants can be switched to coal (which is present in a very large quantity locally) and extracted from Tharparkar to meet the demand of the country in the power sector. By doing all this we can save a lot of money for the country and use it in other sectors. End our dependence on expensive foreign oil and become self-reliant on the coal and then consequently the power sector. Now the real question which comes to mind is that were the people in the government sleeping for the past 14 years? Did they not realize that the power needs of the country would increase? (which has increased by about 500 megawatts annually) and so for that they needed to make sure that some power projects were launched ensure the country didnt face this power problem? Theres no use in crying over spilt milk so talking about should have happened wont change anything. But now we should look towards the future and talk about instead of what we HAVE TO DO to end the power crisis. Now Looking into the administrative causes of the energy crisis, lack of proper planning is the most important. Lack of proper conservation methods is another cause of the energy crisis. Energy sector of Pakistan is considered to be under-developed; It is because of our poor management and planning System, with untapped potential for development growth of the Pakistan. Now we will highlight how energy consumption is in the Pakistan and were our energy is consuming. Here we are dividing it in the 5 sectors those are consuming our energy of the Pakistan and how much their consuming percentage. Our some government sectors and some big Industrial sectors are wasting our energy because they consume it but they do not pay its dues So there for our Country Pakistan is facing the Energy crises which we will discuss here below that why our country Pakistan is going to face the energy crisis still. So here we are talking about the 5 sectors whose using energy. Those 5 sectors names are Domestic Sectors, Commercial Sectors, Industrial Sectors, Agriculture Sectors and Other Sectors. these Sectors are using energy with the different roles of dues that their unit rates are different and their taxes are also different which they should pay.  In the 2003 Pakistan total energy consumption was 52.7 GWH and in the 2009 Pakistan Energy consumption was 70.4 GWH and now In the Pakistan Energy consumption is more than 80 GWH So you can judge that why Pakistan is fa cing the Energy Crisis now a days. .Now we will discuss how Pakistan is generating electricity from sources of energy .We are generating electricity from 4 sources in Pakistan. One is Gas, second is hydel third is nuclear and fourth is oil. These four sources are used in Pakistan to for the production of electricity. Now we will discuss the companies who are generating electricity actually basically there are 9 companies who are working for the production of energy (electricity).These 9 companies are WAPDA, UCh, KAPSO, KESC, other IPPS and LIBERTY,PAEC,ROUSCH and HUBCO. They are working for energy producing tasks. As recently as 2001, the country had 4,000 megawatts of excess power capacity. Today unfortunately the situation has gained threatening prospects.  According to a research most of the high enthalpy geothermal resources of the world lie within the seismic belts passing through Pakistan.  The major resources of energy are oil, gas, petroleum  products, coal, nuclear, solar, biomass and wind energy. Let us chalk out the reasons for shortage of energy. Bad priorities, poor management and lack of accountability can be denoted as the reasons for dearth of energy in Pakistan. The number of consumers of electricity are now increased owing to the rapid urbanization process. The facility of electricity is now provided to the remote villages. We waste a lot of energy, about 15 to 20 percent through poor  distribution  system. Industrial, transport and domestic sectors are the three important consumers of energy.  Few years back Pakistan used to get half of its electricity from hydel power and remaining from thermal generation. However there is a limit to the extent of exploitation of hydel resources and thermal power plants due to environmental and other concerns.  To meet the challenge there is a dire need to go to the alternate sources of energy. Some people suggest that process of converting coal into product gas underground can be a good alternate source of energy. Technically this process is called as underground coal classification. Through this the underground deposit of coal is treated with controlled fire. Gradually the coal turns into gas. The largest coal reserves of Pakistan exist in Thar. There this source can be encashed. Besides coal, the renewable energy as biomass has solutions to our problems. Biomass, material derived from plants or animals, includes wastes, agricultural residues and garbage. It is suggested that subsidies and tax concessions must be provided for importing machinery for establishing biogas power plants in Pakistan. It can prove to be a great source of energy for us as Pakistan is an agricultural country. Come to  solar energy panels, though initial cost of  installing solar panels  is comparatively high but through them the highest levels of efficiency can be reached. I visited Baluchistan recently and was really surprised to see the great solar potential there. It is not only the valley of minerals but it has a lot of wind and  solar energy, having a scattered habitat and ample sunshine. But to my utter dismay the  number of solar panels  installed  there were very few. Some important advantages which favor the use of  solar energy  use in Pakistan include low operational and maintenance cost, environment friendly dimension etc. similarly the wind energy is also in excess and we can harness this energy in a much more effective way. Wind can be utilized to produce electricity at the coastal areas. If power plants are set up driven by the wind energy along the coastline and this vent ure is handed over to foreign investors, the results can be quite satisfactory. Manufacture of wind generators can be made indigenously. Still other sources apart from hydel and thermal which can meet the growing demand nuclear energy can also overcome the energy needs. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission has developed a large infrastructure to manufacture equipment for power but even then we are not able to make considerable progress in the nuclear field.   More and more nuclear reactors for power generation must be built. Similarly, hot climatic  conditions  of some areas of upper Sindh and Southern Punjab may prove to be a source of  solar energy. We have to devise bold and concrete ways on a war footing to overcome the electricity deficit coupled with an instant change in attitude at the earliest. The Quaid-i-Azam said: Let us mobilize all our resources in a systematic and organized way and tackle the grave issues that confront us with grim determination and  discipline  worthy of a great nation.   A collective national effort is needed to face the challenge .Prompt measures need to be taken by the government. One other suggestion is that the existing thermal power plants running on expensive imported  furnace oil  can be converted into natural gas and afterwards to coal. The government can go for establishing a government body for fixing targets for development of power sectors. Ways must also be devised to stop powe r theft besides transmission and  distribution  losses. The long transmission lines connecting grid with hydel stations are faced with transmission losses. These hydel stations are located mostly in the north of the country while thermal units are mainly  installed  in the centre and southern areas of Pakistan.   Political controversies relating to Kalabagh dam must be resolved. In this connection seminars and media can play a good role. The energy crisis has led to a negative impact on direct foreign investment. Investors require a sustained, secure and cheap power supply in any country. In Pakistan, no such facility is available because of which many investors are not willing to come forth. The long-term solution of the energy crisis is to build mega dams to store water and generate electricity. Government power bodies like WAPDA and KESC should initiate plans to supply energy. In a nutshell, energy is the lifeline of a nation and plays a vital role in national progress and economic development of any country. It needs sincere and dedicated efforts of our policy makers to find solutions to meet the energy requirements of the nation Causes of Energy Crisis: Pakistans energy crisis traces its roots to following distinct causes: i. Growing Energy Demand Over the years there is greater need of energy because of; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ increase in population, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ enhancement in lifestyle à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ industrial and agricultural growth à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ greater transportation needs ii. Lack of proactive and integrated planning for production of energy: Pakistan has had wider potentials to tap energy, however, due to lack of any integrated/proactive planning, very less number of power producing plant were installed to meet futuristic demands. Resultantly, over the years, the gap between energy demand and supply drastically grew and now against demand of 20000 MW, we are having around 11500 MW. iii. Imbalanced energy energy mix Energy mix in Pakistan is quite imbalance in comparison to other countries, with greater reliance on non-renewable resources of gas (43.7 %) and oil (29 % majority of which is imported). Prices of petroleum products/crude oil fluctuate and in current Afro-Arab political crisis, the oil prices are likely to increase manifold affecting oil prices in Pakistan. A rational energy mix planning ought to be developed giving greater dependency to renewable (hydel power), indigenous (coal) and alternative energy resources (wind and solar energy). Nuclear energy can iv. Non-utilization of enormous indigenous energy resources . Consequences of Energy Crisis: i. Economic Factors: Energy is pivotal for running all other resources and crisis of energy directly influences all other sectors of the economy. The economic progress is Hampered by decline in agricultural productivity as well as by halting in operations of Industries. One important factor of lower GDP and inflation of commodity prices in recent years is attributed to shortfalls in energy supply. ii. Agriculture Sector: Agricultural productivity of Pakistan is decreasing due to provision of energy for running tube wells, agricultural machinery and production of fertilizers and pesticides. Thus higher energy means higher agricultural productivity. iii. Industrial Sector: Nearly all Industrial units are run with the energy and breakage in energy supply is having dire consequences on industrial growth. As a result of decline in energy supply, industrial units are not only being opened, but also the existing industrial units are gradually closing. iv. Unemployment: By closure of industrial units and less agricultural productivity, new employment opportunities ceased to exist and already employed manpower is shredded by the employers to increase their profit ratios. Thus energy crisis contributes towards unemployment. v. Social Issues: This factor is primarily related to the domestic usage of energy (cooking, heating and water provision). Load shedding cause unrest and frustration amongst the people and results in agitation against the government. vi. Poverty: Declination in economic growth, lower agricultural productivity, unemployment and shackling industrial growth result in increasing poverty. Currently, around forty percent of our population is living beyond poverty line and this ratio is increasing day by day. Ample control of energy crisis will surely yield in curbing the menace of poverty. Energy Crisis has, moreorless, plagued all sectors of Pakistans machinery ranging from economy to industry, agriculture to social life, inflation to poverty and it is hampering national progress in a drastic manner. Nonetheless, menace of energy crisis can be overwhelmed by government through making effective policies and its proactive implementation. Simultaneously, it is the responsibility of us, the people of Pakistan, to utilize the available energy astutely and wisely to play our due role for progress of the country. Causes of Energy Crisis: Pakistans energy crisis traces its roots to following distinct causes: i. Growing Energy Demand Over the years there is greater need of energy because of; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ increase in population, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ enhancement in lifestyle à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ industrial and agricultural growth à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ greater transportation needs ii. Lack of proactive and integrated planning for production of energy: Pakistan has had wider potentials to tap energy, however, due to lack of any integrated/proactive planning, very less number of power producing plant were installed to meet futuristic demands. Resultantly, over the years, the gap between energy demand and supply drastically grew and now against demand of 20000 MW, we are having around 11500 MW. iii. Imbalanced energy energy mix Energy mix in Pakistan is quite imbalance in comparison to other countries, with greater reliance on non-renewable resources of gas (43.7 %) and oil (29 % majority of which is imported). Prices of petroleum products/crude oil fluctuate and in current Afro-Arab political crisis, the oil prices are likely to increase manifold affecting oil prices in Pakistan. A rational energy mix planning ought to be developed giving greater dependency to renewable (hydel power), indigenous (coal) and alternative energy resources (wind and solar energy). Nuclear energy can iv. Non-utilization of enormous indigenous energy resources: Consequences of Energy Crisis: Economic Factors: From all other sectors of the economy Energy is pivotal for running all other resources and crisis of energy directly influences. The economic progress is hampered by decline in agricultural productivity as well as by halting in operations of industries. One important factor of lower GDP and inflation of commodity prices in recent years is attributed to shortfalls in energy supply. Agriculture Sector: Agricultural productivity of Pakistan is decreasing due to provision of energy for running tube wells, agricultural machinery and production of fertilizers and pesticides. Thus higher energy means higher agricultural productivity. iii. Industrial Sector: Nearly all Industrial units are run with the energy and breakage in energy supply is having dire consequences on industrial growth. As a result of decline in energy supply, industrial units are not only being opened, but also the existing industrial units are gradually closing. iv. Unemployment: By closure of industrial units and less agricultural productivity, new employment opportunities ceased to exist and already employed manpower is shredded by the employers to increase their profit ratios. Thus energy crisis contributes towards unemployment. v. Social Issues: This factor is primarily related to the domestic usage of energy (cooking, heating and water provision). Load shedding cause unrest and frustration amongst the people and results in agitation against the government. vi. Poverty: Declination in economic growth, lower agricultural productivity, unemployment and shackling industrial growth result in increasing poverty. Currently, around forty percent of our population is living beyond poverty line and this ratio is increasing day by day. Ample control of energy crisis will surely yield in curbing the menace of poverty. Energy Crisis has, moreorless, plagued all sectors of Pakistans machinery ranging from economy to industry, agriculture to social life, inflation to poverty and it is hampering national progress in a drastic manner. Nonetheless, menace of energy crisis can be overwhelmed by government through making effective policies and its proactive implementation. Simultaneously, it is the responsibility of us, the people of Pakistan, to

Liberal Democracy Essay -- Government Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Liberal Democracy Liberal democracy, with a capitalist economy, is the only form of social organization that will work in this world. Socialism and Communism appear to be sound in theory, but would never come close to achieving what capitalism does. Liberal democracy and capitalism allow for a beneficial competition where communism does not. This competition, in the liberal tradition, on both political and economical levels, allows for the best balance of security and freedom to the people under the government. However, this liberal tradition does not take care of every problem, but it does a better job than any alternative. Competition is a necessity in this world. A more competitive market allows for a more functional government. This market generates the most wealth, making the government’s job much easier. When the government is working better, it takes care of the people better. People are most happy when they feel secure in their living environment and when they feel their liber ties are protected. Liberal democracy; thereby, creates a successful foundation for liberty and security. A balance between liberty and security in a country can be achieved with political and economic competition in the liberal tradition. When the market is at its peak of competition, the government is at its best performance. A government will work well if it has sufficient funds. The more money a government has the more tasks it can accomplish. It can build parks and restore highways, and many other things that make everyday life more enjoyable. The government depends on the economy for support. The more competitive the market is, the more wealth it acquires. The government will run better with a competitive market. This... ... organization that will do better than a liberal democracy; all of these failed. They all failed because they don’t work, and won’t work. The system of political and economic competition is not perfect, but it the best solution compared to any other alternative. This system works better than all the others because there is no coercion. The free market thrives on voluntary choices made by the population. Competitive elections are the only way to go. There is no other method that allows the masses of people to voice their opinion; every person’s vote counts. This way the people put in office who they want, instead of putting up with someone that the government appointed. In history lies the real proof that a liberal democracy works. There is no denying the liberal democracy with a capitalist economy allows for a balance between liberty and security.

pain is inevitable :: essays research papers

Pain is Inevitable Pain, a word that is always associated with getting hurt. The real question now is how it hurt. There are two different kinds of pain; physical and mental. The physical aspect of pain is like falling from something, cutting your arm, or stubbing your toe. The mental part is hurting someone’s feeling from saying something harsh or doing something to them emotionally, which hurts inside. The causes and effects of physical and mental pain are very different but can be both equally devastating and even more dramatic with emotionally disturbed people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Causes for physical pain are purely explainable. In all cases it hurts. In most cases I get hurt physically; it is from doing something really stupid. One great example is the time I was twelve and broke my leg. I was in a swing with my eyes closed, not paying attention, and my leg got caught under the swing coming back around and broke my leg. The cause was my not paying attention to what I was doing and it hurt. The actual cause for physical pain can be very different scenarios, but it can also be terribly dramatic. One of my best friend’s brothers was riding in a car with someone who was high, drunk, and tired. They had just gotten done with a party and were heading home. As they were going home, the truck went off the road and flipped on his head. He is now mentally and physically disabled and can not do anything without help from his parents.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The effects from physical pain can be something easy or something very difficult to deal with. When I broke my leg the effect was I had to wear a cast for two months. The effects are always going to be different as well. For my friend’s brother, he will be a paraplegic for the rest of his life. The effects of physical pains are the broadest ranged category because anything can happen, or not happen.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The cause for mental pain is a very complex category. Some people don’t even know that they have hurt someone mentally. It could be from saying something, doing something, or from not doing anything at all. Emotions are the most unstable and unpredictable feelings. Saying something like this doesn’t taste good can be the effect of getting slapped, or making someone cry. Driving over an animal will not only hurt the animal, but the person who owned it will definitely not be happy.

Reactive Oxygen Species Essay -- Biology, Lipids, Proteins, DNA

The formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is an unavoidable consequence in aerobic organisms as by products during metabolic respiration (Han et al., 2007, Je et al., 2009). These highly reactive ROS can be considered as strong oxidants and have been shown to induce damage in all cellular macromolecules, such as lipids, proteins and DNA. Over the years dietary polyphenols have been widely studied for their biological activities including antioxidant activity (Ahn et al., 2007, Heo et al., 2009, Kang et al., 2005, Li et al., 2009). Polyphenolic compounds are naturally occurring compounds containing phenolic functionality and this large diverse group of secondary metabolites are exist both in terrestrial and aquatic environments (Shibata et al., 2002, Susanto et al., 2009). Beside the strong antioxidant properties, these naturally occurring polyphenols are known to have numerous biological activities such as anti inflammatory (Ryu et al., 2008), anti allergic (Lee et al., 2009), anti bacterial (Al-Mola, 2009, Suffredini et al., 2004), anti-plasmin inhibitiory (Fukuyama et al., 1990), matrix metalloproteinase inhibitory (Kim et al., 2006) and anticancer (Kong et al., 2009). The high antioxidant power of polyphenols is generally believed to responsible for these activities. Therefore it is very clear that the possibility of use this active compounds in many industrial applications as functional ingredients. Phlorotannins (brown algal polyphenols) are polyphenolic compounds found exclusively in brown seaweeds. Phlorotannins, a subgroup of tannins, are produced entirely by polymerization of phloroglucinol units (Kang et al., 2007, Koivikko et al., 2005). During last two decades, the roles and functions of phlorotannins have been ... ... available proteases and carbohydrases. Further they reported that Alcalase and Viscozyme extractes were more effective than the other extracts tested. With these significant results it is clear that EAE affords big advantage over commonly used classical extraction technique. Taken together, enzyme treatment previous to extraction has resulted in improved yields in the case of bioactive components from seaweeds. In all instances mentioned above, hydrolytic enzymes have been used in different combinations as agents that interact on cell walls, breaking down the structural integrity rendering the intracellular materials more exposed for solvent extraction. Since EAE has attracted growing interest in the extraction of biologically active components, the technique could be explored as a mean to enhance the extraction of particular metabolites from seaweeds. Reactive Oxygen Species Essay -- Biology, Lipids, Proteins, DNA The formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is an unavoidable consequence in aerobic organisms as by products during metabolic respiration (Han et al., 2007, Je et al., 2009). These highly reactive ROS can be considered as strong oxidants and have been shown to induce damage in all cellular macromolecules, such as lipids, proteins and DNA. Over the years dietary polyphenols have been widely studied for their biological activities including antioxidant activity (Ahn et al., 2007, Heo et al., 2009, Kang et al., 2005, Li et al., 2009). Polyphenolic compounds are naturally occurring compounds containing phenolic functionality and this large diverse group of secondary metabolites are exist both in terrestrial and aquatic environments (Shibata et al., 2002, Susanto et al., 2009). Beside the strong antioxidant properties, these naturally occurring polyphenols are known to have numerous biological activities such as anti inflammatory (Ryu et al., 2008), anti allergic (Lee et al., 2009), anti bacterial (Al-Mola, 2009, Suffredini et al., 2004), anti-plasmin inhibitiory (Fukuyama et al., 1990), matrix metalloproteinase inhibitory (Kim et al., 2006) and anticancer (Kong et al., 2009). The high antioxidant power of polyphenols is generally believed to responsible for these activities. Therefore it is very clear that the possibility of use this active compounds in many industrial applications as functional ingredients. Phlorotannins (brown algal polyphenols) are polyphenolic compounds found exclusively in brown seaweeds. Phlorotannins, a subgroup of tannins, are produced entirely by polymerization of phloroglucinol units (Kang et al., 2007, Koivikko et al., 2005). During last two decades, the roles and functions of phlorotannins have been ... ... available proteases and carbohydrases. Further they reported that Alcalase and Viscozyme extractes were more effective than the other extracts tested. With these significant results it is clear that EAE affords big advantage over commonly used classical extraction technique. Taken together, enzyme treatment previous to extraction has resulted in improved yields in the case of bioactive components from seaweeds. In all instances mentioned above, hydrolytic enzymes have been used in different combinations as agents that interact on cell walls, breaking down the structural integrity rendering the intracellular materials more exposed for solvent extraction. Since EAE has attracted growing interest in the extraction of biologically active components, the technique could be explored as a mean to enhance the extraction of particular metabolites from seaweeds.

Modern Indian Women Essay

The status of women in modern India is a sort of a paradox. If on one hand she is at the peak of ladder of success, on the other hand she is mutely suffering the violence afflicted on her by her own family members. As compared with past women in modern times have achieved a lot but in reality they have to still travel a long way. Women have left the secured domain of their home and are now in the battlefield of life, fully armored with their talent. They had proven themselves. But in India they are yet to get their dues. The sex ratio of India shows that the Indian society is still prejudiced against female. There are 917 females per thousand males in India according to the census of 2011, which is much below the world average of 990 females. There are many problems which women in India have to go through daily, some of which are: †¢Malnutrition On of the major causes of mal nutrition among Indian women is gender inequality. In many parts of India, especially rural India, women are the ones who eat last and least in the whole family. This means they eat whatever is left after the men folk are satiated. As a result most of the times their food intake does not contain the nutritional value required in maintaining the healthy body. In villages, sometimes women do not get to eat a whole meal due to poverty. The UNICEF report of 1996 clearly states that the women of South Asia are not given proper care, which results in higher level of malnutrition among the women of South Asia than anywhere else in the world. This nutritional deficiency has two major consequences for women first they become anemic and second they never achieve their full growth, which leads to an unending cycle of undergrowth as malnourished women cannot give birth to healthy children. †¢Poor Health Malnutrition results in poor health of women. The women of India are prejudiced from birth itself. They are not breastfed for long. In the want of a son get pregnant as soon as possible which decreases the caring period to the girl child, whereas male members get adequate care and nutrition.  Women are not given the right to free movement that means that they cannot go anywhere on their own if they want and they have to take the permission of male member of family or have to take them along. This means that women miss visiting doctors even when they should, which adds to their poor health. †¢Maternal Mortality The maternal mortality rate in India is among highest in the world. As females are not given proper attention, which results in the malnutrition and then they are married at an early age which leads to pregnancies at younger age when the body is not ready to bear the burden of a child. All this results in complications, which may lead to gynecological problems, which may become serious with time and may ultimately, lead to death. †¢Lack of education In India women’s education never got its due share of attention. From medieval India women were debarred from the educational field. According to medieval perception women need just household education and this perception of medieval India still persists in villages of India even today. Girls are supposed to fulfill domestic duties and education becomes secondary for them whereas it is considered to be important for boys. Although scenario in urban areas has changed a lot and women are opting for higher education but majority of Indian population residing in villages still live in medieval times. The people of villages consider girls to be curse and they do not want to waste money and time on them as they think that women should be wedded off as soon as possible. The main reason for not sending girls to school is the poor economic condition. Another reason is far off location of schools. In Indian society virginity and purity is given utmost importance during marriage and people are afraid to send their girl child to far off schools were male teacher teach them along with boys. The lack of education is the root cause for many other problems. An uneducated mother cannot look after her children properly and she is not aware of the deadly diseases and their cure, which leads to the poor health  of the children. An uneducated person does not know about hygiene this lack of knowledge of hygiene may lead to poor health of the whole family. †¢Mistreatment In India violence against women is a common evil. Not just in remote parts but even in cities women bear the brunt. They are subjected to physical and mental violence. They are the one who work most but are not given their due. Every hour a woman is raped in India and every 93 minutes a woman is burnt to death due to dowry problem. There are many laws such as The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, The Hindu Succession Act of 1956, The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act of 1856, The Hindu Women Right to Property Act of 1937, The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, to protect women and punishment is severe but the conviction rate of crime against women is very low in India. †¢Overworked Indian women work more than men of India but their work is hardly recognized as they mainly do unskilled work. Their household chores is never counted as a work, if a woman is working in a field to help her husband it will also be not counted as a work. A study conducted by Mies in 1986 states that in Andhra Pradesh a woman works around 15 hours a day during the agricultural season whereas a male on an average works for around 7-8 hours. †¢Lack of power In India a large percentage of women do not have power. They cannot take decisions independently not even related to their own life. They have to take permission of male members for each and every issue. They don’t have any say in important household matters and not in matter of their own marriage. †¢Marriage The family mainly fixes the marriages in India. The scenario in villages is very bad. The girl is not consulted but is told to marry a groom whom her family has chosen for him. They are taught to abide by the whims and fancies of their husbands. Going against the wishes of husband is considered to be a sin. In marriage husband always has the upper hand. The groom and his parents show as if they are obliging the girl by marrying her and in return  they demand hefty dowry. †¢Dowry Another serious issue in modern India. Courts are flooded with cases related to death due to dowry harassment by husband and in laws. In ancient times women were given ‘Stridhan’ when they departed from the house of their parents. This amount of money was given to her as a gift which she can use on her and her children but her in-laws did not have any right on that amount. This amount was supposed to help the girl in time of need. Slowly this tradition became obligatory and took the form of dowry. Nowadays parents have to give hefty amount in dowry, the in laws of their girl are not concerned whether they can afford it or not. If a girl brings large amount of dowry she is given respect and is treated well in her new home and if she does not bring dowry according to expectations of her in laws then she has to suffer harassment. Due to this evil practice many newly wed women of India have to lose their lives. †¢Female infanticide/foeticide As women were supposed to be and in some areas of India are still considered to be curse by some strata of society their birth was taken as a burden. So in past times they were killed as soon as they were born. In some of the Rajput clans of Rajasthan newly born girl children was dropped in a large bowl of milk and were killed. Today with the help of technology the sex of the unborn baby is determined and if it is a girl child then it is aborted. In all this procedure women do not have any say they have to do according to the wish of their husbands even if she does not want an abortion, she has no choice. †¢Divorce The divorce rate in India is not so high compared to western countries but that does not mean that marriages are more successful here. The reason behind low level of divorce rate is that it is looked down by the society. It is regarded as the sign of failure of marriage, especially of women. She is treated as if she has committed some crime by divorcing her husband. In some communities like Muslims women did not have the right to divorce their husband they were divorced at just the pronouncement of â€Å"I divorce you† by their husband thrice and they could not do anything except to be the mute spectator. Recently Muslim Law Board has given right of divorce to women.  After divorce women is entitled to get her â€Å"Mehr† for herself and her children’s sustenance. In Hindu society women get maintenance for themselves and their children after divorce.

Land Law in Kenya Essay

An interest in land according to The Registered Land Act Cap 300 is defined as follows: â€Å"interest† in land includes absolute ownership of land. According to Black’s Law Dictionary, interest with regard to land law is defined as a legal share in something; all or part of a legal or equitable claim to or right in property that is, right, title, and interest. Collectively, the word includes any aggregation of rights, privileges, powers, and immunities. Oxford defines interest as interest with regard to land law as a right in or over land. It may comprise equitable ownership of the land such as the interest of the tenant for life under a settlement, where the legal estate is owned by trustees; or the benefit of some other right over the land of another, such as an easement or rent charge. In all these definitions, the characteristics of rights over the land, ownership and title are key features of interests in land. We should therefore examine these three to develop a full understanding of what interests in land really are. Rights over Land Definition A right over land is the exclusive liberty and privilege to enjoy land due to the individuals with legal shares in the land. Land here is perceived as the following definitions: Section 2 of the RTA defines land as including ‘land and benefits to arise out of land or things embedded or rooted in the earth, or attached to what is so embedded for the permanent beneficial enjoyment of that to which it is so attached, or permanently fastened to anything so embedded, rooted or attached, or any estate or interest therein, together with all paths,  passages, ways, waters, watercourses, liberties, privileges, easements, plantations and gardens thereon or there under lying or being, unless specifically excepted’. Section 3 of the RLA defines land to include land covered with water, all things growing on land and buildings and other things permanently affixed to land. Section 260 of the Constitution of Kenya’s definition of â€Å"land† includes— (a) The surface of the earth and the subsurface rock; (b) Any body of water on or under the surface; (c) Marine waters in the territorial sea and exclusive Economic zone; (d) Natural resources completely contained on or under the Surface; and (e) The air space above the surface; Therefore when regarding rights over land, this is looking-glass through which land is viewed. The definition of a right over land has roots in two Latin maxims. 1. Cuius est solumeius estus que ad coelum et ad inferos: meaning he who owns the land owns everything extending to the very heavens and to the depths of the earth. This maxim was set forth in Wandworth v United Tel. Co. Ltd (1884) 13 B.D. 904 2. Quid quid plantatour solo, solo cedit: meaning whatever is attached to the ground becomes a part of it. The rule also implies that objects attached to the building in question become annexed to the realty with the result that they are regarded as â€Å"fixtures.† The Land Registration Act Cap 300 Section 30 represents an evolution and stratification of these rights and goes on to describe these rights as follows: 30. Unless the contrary is expressed in the register, all registered land shall be subject to such of the following overriding interests as may for the time being subsist and affect the same, without their being noted on the register – (a) Rights of way, rights of water and profits subsisting at the time of first registration under this Act; (b) Natural rights of light, air, water and support; (c) Rights of compulsory acquisition, resumption, entry, search and user conferred by any other written law; (d) Leases or agreements for leases for a term not exceeding two years, periodic tenancies and indeterminate  tenancies within the meaning of section 46; (e) Charges for unpaid rates and other moneys which, without reference to registration under this Act, are expressly declared by any written law to be a charge upon land; (f) Rights acquired or in process of being acquired by virtue of any written law relating to the limitation of actions or by prescription; (g) The rights of a person in possession or actual occupation of land to which he is entitled in right only of such possession or occupation, save where inquiry is made of such person and the rights are not disclosed; (h) Electric supply lines, telephone and telegraph lines or poles, pipelines, aqueducts, canals, weirs and dams erected, constructed or lay in pursuance or by virtue of any power conferred by any written law: These rights are acquired by the proprietor of the land. A proprietor, according to the Registered Land Act Cap 300 is (a) In relation to land or a lease, the person named in the register as the proprietor thereof; and (b) in relation to a charge of land or a lease, the person named in the register of the land or lease as the person in whose favour the charge is made; These rights are enshrined in the Laws of Kenya and as such they are a fundamental aspect of the Kenyan legal position. The importance of the rights over land are as important as the issue of land itself for the rights over land are the reason and rationale to own, occupy and sell land. After all, what is the point of owning land if one has no rights over it? The Rationale Behind Rights over Land The importance of these rights is engrained as much in their history as much as their practicality. The history of rights over land in Kenya can be traced back to the pre-colonial era. In pre-colonial Kenya, the land was owned by the community at large. Rights over land were granted to all members of the community. All members of the community could derive all benefits he or she so wished. (It is important to note that the pre-requisite to enjoy these benefits was membership to the community not proprietorship as is the case today.) However, the land being owned by the community and by virtue of the entire community being able to use the land as they wished was by all means and purposes owned by the community at large not by individuals. Therefore the appropriation of such land was not under the purview of individuals. By its very nature, appropriation is based on capitalist concept. The principle behind appropriation is the exclusive  enjoyment of certain property and all rights pursuant to it. The African view towards land was inherently communist. The shift from the communist view towards the rights over land to the capitalist view was a result of the British invasion and colonisation of Kenya. Colonialism brought with it a free enterprise economy. A characteristic feature of that mode of production is that it is individualistic. That is to say, at the core of it, the individual has the greatest motivation if he knows that whatever he applies, whatever he produces through his own sweat and effort will be entirely his and not available to be shared by others or subjected to being communally owned. One immediate impact of the introduction of the free enterprise system was that land was treated as a commodity which could be individualized, sold, owned, or dealt with as per the wishes of those who had titles to such land. Due to agriculture being the main income generator for colonial settlers and in turn the colonial government, the issue of land ownership and the rights over land were dispensed with expediently. Over the years, land policy in Kenya has undergone a transformation especially as a result of the 2010 Constitution. However, the basic rights over land have remained the same. Land Tenure Definitions 1. The use of land in a manner established by custom or law. 2. The right to hold property; part of an ancient hierarchical system of holding lands Under capitalism the system of land tenure is based on the right of private land ownership (by capitalists or small working peasants) or on a land rental agreement. Various forms of rental relationships are becoming increasingly prevalent in agriculture. Under socialism the system of land tenure is based on public socialist ownership of the means of production and on the socialist economic system. When the new system of landholding was introduced in the eleventh century, the king gave rights over large areas of land to each of his most powerful  supporters, in exchange for an oath of loyalty and the performance of services (which very often involved ï ¬ ghting for the king when necessary). In turn, each lord would grant to his followers similar rights over parts of the land he had received, again in exchange for loyalty and services. The relationship between the grantor (the king or lord who granted the rights) and the grantee (the tenant who received them) is called ‘tenure’ (from the Latin word ‘tenere’ which means ‘to hold’), and various forms of tenure developed, according to the nature of the services to be performed by the tenant. These forms of tenure came to be described as ‘freehold tenures’, because rights in land could be held in this way only by free men (i.e., not by the unfree serfs or villeins, who were obliged to remain in the area in which they had been born and to work for the local lord). Over the centuries, changes in society meant that the services due from the tenant were no longer performed and the link between lord and tenant was forgotten. However, the underlying theory that land is held from the Crown remained, and although most forms of tenure have been abolished a ‘landowner’ is still said to hold his land from the Crown by the one remaining form of tenure (‘free and common socage’). Nevertheless, for all practical purposes the doctrine of tenure has little modern signiï ¬ cance, and it is very likely that the owner of a house is completely unaware of his tenurial relationship with the Crown. Under feudalism there were four principal forms of land tenure. Land tenure by the feudal lord, based on various forms of hierarchical feudal land ownership and on the dependent position of the workers themselves, the serfs or feudally bound peasants. Tenure of allotted land by serfs who were attached to land not belonging to them and who therefore bore various obligations to the feudal lord for its use; this form secured the economic basis of the class rule of the feudal lords (gentry’s landowners) and, within certain limits, created conditions for the development of small-scale peasant farming. The third form was land tenure by peasants who enjoyed personal freedom but had to pay a quitrent (monetary or in kind) to the feudal lords or fulfil  personal obligations. The fourth was land tenure by free peasants, based on their free, alodial ownership. Such a free peasant, however, was a rare phenomenon under feudalism. Doctrine of Tenures is a doctrine followed in old English law whereby it is presumed that all land is held of the Crown, either directly or indirectly, on some type of tenure. Legal Effect of Doctrine The crown is the owner of all the land. No one has absolute ownership. Rather, landowners hold the land ‘of’ the Crown as tenants (therefore tenure). They may then alienate their land further, creating subtenants (subinfuedation). The relationship between a lord and his tenant is one of mutual duties. In return for tenure, a tenant provides the lord with services and a right to incidents. Elements of Doctrine According to the doctrine, all of the land ultimately belongs to the Crown, who gives it (via ‘grants’) to people. This means that no one has absolute ownership (no ‘allodial’ land). The people are said to hold the land ‘of’ the Crown. They are ‘tenants’ of the crown, therefore, they are granted ‘tenure’. The doctrine creates the system of lord and tenant – the lord alienating land to a tenant (who can then alienate the land to someone else, creating a new lord and tenant relationship). There is a mutual exchange or duties and obligations between the lord and tenant: Services – the tenant has to provide a variety of services for the lord in return for his tenure. In return, the lord provides the land, a court (manorial courts) and protection. Incidents – the lord also had rights to incidents – . Roots of Doctrine The doctrine originated in the Norman Conquest, when William the Conqueror made the Crown the absolute owner of all land. His supporters were made ‘tenants in chief’ pursuant to a ‘grant’. The old landlords who did not rebel were entitled to keep their land. To deal with this, William created the legal fiction of the Crown having ‘granted’ this land to the landlords. Land ownership had a pyramidal structure with complex ties between Kings and tenants in chief. The King was at the tip, and sub-tenants were at the bottom. In the middle were tenants who made grants. These tenants who made grants became Lords, for they possessed and held their land. The sub-tenants merely had a right to occupation. There was fragmentation in a spatial dimension (i.e. There were overlapping sets of rights over a particular area of land). This allowed more than 1 person to have an interest in the same land. Development of Doctrine The modern absolute definition of ‘ownership’ simply did not fit the feudal system of land ownership as no one person had absolute title. A freehold was not really ownership. Only the Crown had what came close to being considered absolute rights. The doctrine of tenure allows overlapping rights over one piece of land because of the subinfuedation. The process eventually became too cumbersome, and a statute was created to reduce the difficulties that arose including: 1. It permitted every free man to alienate his interest in the whole or part of his land without his lord’s consent; 2. It prevented further subinfeudation to occur (Substitution still remained). If A held land as a tenant-in-chief (a landlord) from the King, and gave land to B, B would become the tenant-in-chief for that parcel. Earlier, A remained tenant-in-chief, while B was in an awkward quasi-tenured position. Summation There are two building blocks of English land law: 1) Doctrine of tenure 2) Doctrine of estates The doctrine of tenure is now irrelevant, but shaped the doctrine of estates. THE CONCEPT OF LAND TENURE The term land tenure is derived from the Latin word tenure which means â€Å"to hold.† Tenure defines the social relations between people in respect of the object of the tenure, in this case land. Tenure also defines the methods by which individuals or groups acquire hold transfer or transmit property rights in land (Ogolla, Mugabe 1996). Property rights may include a variety of different rights for example to build, to use, to transfer, to mine etc. the rights may be transferred or transmitted either together or individually at the discretion of the holder with or without limitations depending on the tenure system. Formal rules of tenure therefore define the nature and content of property rights in land or other resources and the conditions under which those rights are to be held and enjoyed. LAND TENURE SYSTEMS IN KENYA Interests in land broadly fall into two groups. Rights and that are held through traditional African systems, and rights that derive from the English system introduced and maintained through laws enacted by colonial and then the national parliament. The former is loosely known as customary tenure bound through traditional rules (customary law). The latter body of law is referred to as statutory tenure, secured and expressed through national law, in various Act of parliament e.g. Government Land Act (cap 280), Registered Land Act(cap 300), Registration of Titles Act (cap 281), Trust Land Act (cap 288) of the Laws of Kenya. a) Customary Land Tenure This refers to unwritten land ownership practices by certain communities under customary law. Kenya being a diverse country in terms of its ethnic composition has multiple customary tenure systems, which vary mainly due to different agricultural practices, climatic conditions and cultural practices. However most customary tenure systems exhibit a number of similar characteristics as follows: First, individuals or groups by virtue of their membership in some social unit of production or political community have guaranteed rights of access to land and other natural resources (Ogendo 1979). Individuals or families thus claim property rights by virtue of their  affiliation to the group. Secondly, rights of control are rested in the political authority of the unit or community. This control is derived from sovereignty over the area in which the relevant resources are located. Control is for the purpose of guaranteeing access to the resources and is redistributive both spartially and intergenerationally. Its administrative component entails the power to allocate land and other resources within the group, regulate their use and defend them against outsiders (Ogola, Mugabe 1996). Thirdly, rights analogous to private property accrue to individuals out of their investment of labour in harnessing, utilizing and maintaining the resource. Thus the present cultivator of some piece of land has the greatest rights to it. These rights transcend mere usufruct and encompass transmission and in some communities transfer (Elias 1956). Lastly, resources that do not require extensive investment of labour or which by their nature had to be shared, for example, common pasturage are controlled and managed by the relevant political authority. Every individual member of the political community has guaranteed equal rights of access thereto. The regulatory mechanisms imposed by the political units such as exclusion of outsiders, seasonal variations in land use and social pressure ensured sustainable resource utilization. This mode of ownership in Kenya is currently governed by the Trust Land Act by which all land in the rural areas which is neither government land nor individually owned is vested in the county council in trust for the residents living there. b) Statutory Tenures i) Freehold Tenure This tenure confers the greatest interest in land called absolute right of ownership or possession of land for an indefinite period of time, or in perpetuity. Freehold land is governed by the Registered Land Act (RLA) Cap 300 of the Laws of Kenya. The Act provides that the registration of a person as the proprietor of the land vests in that person the absolute ownership of that land together with all rights, privileges relating thereto. A freehold title generally has no restriction as to the use and occupation but in practice there are conditional freeholds, which restrict the use for say  agricultural or ranching purposes only. ii) Leasehold Tenure Leasehold is an interest in land for a definite term of years and may be granted by a freeholder usually subject to the payment of a fee or rent and is subject also to certain conditions which must be observed. e.g. relating to developments and usage. Leases are also granted by the government for government land, the local authorities for trust land and by individuals or organisations owning freehold land. The maximum term of government leases granted in Kenya is 999 years for agricultural land and 99 years for urban plots. There are few cases of 33 years leases granted by government in respect of urban trust lands. The local authorities have granted leases for 50 and 30 years as appropriate (GOK 1996). c) Public Tenure This is where land owned by the Government for her own purpose and which includes unutilised or unalienated government land reserved for future use by the Government itself or may be available to the general public for various uses. The land is administered under the Government lands Act Cap 280.These lands are vested in the president and who has, normally through the Commissioner of Lands, powers to allocate or make grants of any estates, interests or rights in or over unalienated government land. Categories of government land include forest reserves, other government reserves, alienated and unalienated government land, national parks, townships and other urban centres and open water bodies(GOK 1996). The Government Lands Act does not contain any notion of trusteeship by government of the land to her people. Indeed the government at times acts as a private owner and allocates parcels to those in its favour. d) Other Interests These include: – Reservations of other government or trust land to government ministries, departments or parastatals for their use. – Minor interest such as easements, wayleaves or temporary occupation licences. – Non formalised defacto tenure by which people, individually or in groups invade and occupy other people or government land particularly in major urban centres of Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu. OWNERSHIP Land has been described as ‘those parts of the earth that are capable in law of being owned and are within court jurisdiction. Generally , ownership of land includes the airspace above it and the sub soil below it (a coelo usque ad centrum; from the heaven to the centre of the earth).Land tenure is the name given, particularly in common law systems, to the legal regime in which land is owned by an individual, who is said to â€Å"hold† the land Ownership is the exclusive right to use, possess, and dispose of property, subject only to the rights of persons having a superior interest and to any restrictions on the owner’s rights imposed by agreement with or by act of the third parties or by operation of law. Ownership may be; Corporeal- of material thing which may itself be a movable or an immovable Incorporeal- of something tangible e.g. copyright  Ownership involves enjoyment of a number of rights of the property. The owner can alienate some of those rights while still retaining others; e.g. an owner of land may grant a right of way or a patent owner may grant a license to manufacture the patented goods. Ownership may be held by different persons for different interests e.g. when a freehold owner grants a lease or when land is held on a trust of land for persons with interest in succession to one another. More than person can own property at the same time they maybe either joint owners with a single title to the property or owners in common each having a distinct title in the property that he can dispose of independently. A person may be either the legal and beneficial owner, or the legal ownership of property maybe separate from the beneficial ownership, which is the right to enjoy the property as when a trustee owns the legal estate in land for the benefit of another. A legally valid transaction may confer specific rights to use, posses, or deal with property without conferring ownership of it e.g. a contract may appoint a person as the owner’s agent for the sale of specified land. BRIEF HISTORY OF LAND TENURE Historically in the system of feudalism, the lords who received land directly  from the Crown were called tenants-in-chief. They doled out portions of their land to lesser tenants in exchange for services, who in turn divided it among even lesser tenants. This process—that of granting subordinate tenancies—is known as subinfeudation. In this way, all individuals except the monarch were said to hold the land â€Å"of† someone else. Historically, it was usual for there to be reciprocal duties between lord and tenant. There were different kinds of tenure to fit various kinds of duties that a tenant might owe to a lord. For instance, a military tenure might be by knight-service, requiring the tenant to supply the lord with a number of armed horsemen. The concept of tenure has since evolved into other forms, such as leases and estates. MODES OF OWNERSHIP AND TENURE Here are a great variety of modes of land ownership and tenure: Traditional land tenure. For example, most of the indigenous nations or tribes of North America had no formal notion of land ownership. When Europeans first came to North America, they sometimes simply disregarded traditional land tenure and simply seized land; more often, they accommodated traditional land tenure by recognizing it as aboriginal title. This theory formed the basis for (often unequal and often abused) treaties with indigenous peoples. Ownership of land by swearing to make productive use of it. In several developing countries as Egypt, Senegal, this method is still presently in use. In Senegal, it is mentioned as â€Å"mise en valeur des zones du terroir†and in Egypt, it is called Wadaa al-yad. Allodial title, a system in which real property is owned absolutely free and clear of any superior landlord or sovereign. True Allodial title is rare, with most property ownership in the common law world (Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Kingdom, United) being in fee simple. Allodial title is inalienable, in that it may be conveyed, devised, gifted, or mortgaged by the owner, but it may not be distressed and restrained for collection of taxes or private debts, or condemned by the government. Feudal land tenure, a system of mutual obligations under which a royal or noble personage granted a fiefdom ,some degree of interest in the use or revenues of a given parcel of land, in exchange for a claim on services such as military service or simply maintenance of the land in which the lord continued to have an interest. This pattern obtained from the level of high nobility as vassals of a monarch down to lesser nobility whose only vassals were their serfs. Fee simple ; under common law, this is the most complete ownership interest one can have in real property, other than the rareAllodial title. The holder can typically freely sell or otherwise transfer that interest or use it to secure a mortgage loan. This picture of â€Å"complete ownership† is, of course, complicated by the obligation in most places to pay a property tax and by the fact that if the land is mortgaged, there will be a claim on it in the form of a lien. In modern societies, this is the most common form of land ownership. Land can also be owned by more than one party and there are various concurrent estate rules. Native title ; in Australia, native title is a common law concept that recognizes that some indigenous people have certain land rights that derive from their traditional laws and customs. Native title can co-exist with non-indigenous proprietary rights and in some cases different indigenous groups can exercise their native title over the same land. Life estate ; under common law, this is an interest in real property that ends at death. The holder has the use of the land for life, but typically no ability to transfer that interest or to use it to secure a mortgage loan. Fee tail ; under common law, this is hereditary, non-transferable ownership of real property. A similar concept, the legitime, exists in civil and Roman law; the legitime limits the extent to which one may disinherit an heir. Leasehold or rental ; Under both common law and civil law, land may be leased or rented by its owner to another party; a wide range of arrangements are possible, ranging from very short terms to the 99-year leases common in the United Kingdom, and allowing various degrees of freedom in the use of the property. Rights to use a common, which may include such rights as the use of a road or the right to graze one’s animals on commonly owned land. Sharecropping, under which one has use of agricultural land owned by another person in exchange for a share of the resulting crop or livestock. Easements, which allow one to make certain specific uses of land that is owned by someone else. The most classic easement is right-of-way, but it could also include (e.g. the right to run an electrical power line across someone else’s land. TITLE Definition of title a) The coincidence of all the elements that constitute the fullest legal right to control and dispose of property or a claim. b) The aggregate evidence that gives rise to a legal right of possession or control. c) The instrument, such as a deed, that constitutes this evidence. d) Something that provides a basis for or justifies a claim e) Legal right to possession of legal property Title is the set of facts upon which claim to a legal right or interest is founded, title can exist even when there is no pre-existing legal interest or right vested in a person who claims he has title. Professor Ray Goode distinguishes title and interest in this manner: A persons’ interest in an asset denotes a quantum of rights over which he/ she enjoys against others’, his title measures the strength of the interest which he enjoys in relation to others. Title to a proprietary interest can be either relative or absolute. An absolute title is one that is indefeasible in the sense that there is no-one else who can point to a better title in respect of the same object. The essence is basically that there isn’t anyone with a better title. Instances of proving absolute title: i. Simplest is through creation of something out of nothing for example an author of a book has absolute title over the said book because he wrote it and hence created something from nothing. ii. Manufacturing of something in the absence of other evidence of manufacture of the said thing being manufactured but any one other then he claiming he manufactured it for example coca-cola have absolute products over coca-cola for no one other then they have the correct formula of creating the fizzy drink. iii. Registration of such said title, gives you absolute title. This means that if one is to buy a piece of land and it is properly registered in the proper procedure then he has absolute title to the land A relative title is one that can be defeated by a person showing that he or  she has a better title to the thing It follows from the definitions’ of title that two or more persons may have independent legal interests in the same thing. For example, both a true owner of an asset and a person with mere possession with the intention to control can have absolute legal interests in the asset. This legal interest is enforceable against third parties by both the true owner and a possessor. Whilst they both have identical legal interests, they have titles that are different in nature. The true owner has a much stronger title than a mere possessor of the chattel. A true owner has an indefeasible title whereas the possessor has a mere relative title. The strength of the true owner’s title is greater because it cannot be defeated by anyone so long as the true owner has an intention to control the asset. The title of the possessor is liable to be defeated by the true owner, and thus, whilst he has a legal interest, his title is a relative one. There are different ways that one can take up a title, this are the ways: Sole Owner Taking title as sole owner means that only one person holds title. He or she is the sole owner of the property and no one else needs to be considered. Tenants In Common â€Å"Tenants in Common† means that the only thing the owners have in common is tenancy in the property. The property may have 2 or more owners and they may be related or unrelated. What is essential to note is that the percentage of each owner may be sold or willed without the permission of the other owners. For instance, if both John and Bob own a piece of property and John dies, the percentage of ownership of John goes to John’s heirs, not to Bob. Tenants in Entirety â€Å"Tenants in Entirety† is reserved for married couples only. This means that you own the property as one. If something happens to either one of you, the other person automatically keeps title to the property. Joint Tenancy â€Å"Joint Tenancy† means that each of you owns the property jointly. When you take title as Joint Tenants, you’ve agreed to the right of survivorship to the title of the property. This means that if one of you passes away, the other gets the property. It also means that one owner cannot sell or will the property without the other owner’s consent. For instance, if owner John wants to sell the property, then co-owner Bob will have to agree to that. Trust A popular trend is taking title as a trust. This means that the trust, not you, owns the property. This may protect your asset in the event of litigation Registration of title is made out by the fact that it offers cheap and expeditious insecure methods in property dealings which are in sharp contrast to the position in the unregistered system which was thought to be costly, disorganized insecure and complicated. Its principle objective is to replace the traditional and registered title method with a single established register which is state maintained and therefore conclusive and authoritative as to the details or particulars set out therein. It is precisely because of that that it is credited in eliminating wasteful burden placed on potential purchasers under the unregistered system which requires them to separately investigate titles to assure themselves that it is a good title that can pass and which is free from any hidden claims which may be adverse to their interests. Since it is state maintained and operated, the title registration system enjoys all the advantages that are unavailable under the registration of the deed system which is not very different from the unregistered system. Unlike the registration of the deed system the registration of title system has the capability of investing secure titles in all persons in whose favour such registration may be effected. It is further regarded as final authority on the correct position regarding any registered land. It is also cheap and expeditious in terms of facilitating various transactions regarding registered land. State indemnity is available for any losses that may be incurred and so it makes conveyance very simple. DOCTRINE OF ESTATES Definition What is an Estate? Black’s Law Dictionary defines an Estate as â€Å"The amount, degree, nature, and quality of a person’s interest in land or other property; esp., a real-estate interest that may become possessory, the ownership being measured in terms of duration.† These are interests projected on the plane of time so as to be able to be capable of quantification in terms of duration. An estate must be distinguished from Tenure, which is concerned with the quantity of estate. Tenure as it is basically refers to a set of conditions upon which an estate interest in land may be held. Hence, the relevant question is how much and not for how long, the latter being applicable to the estate. What is the Doctrine of Estates This is an old English rule that a person cannot own land, but can merely own an estate in it, authorizing the person to hold it for some period of time. The Doctrine Of Estates And The Rise Of The Fee Simple There are two elements to the doctrine of estates, corresponding to two ways in which estates may be classified: (1) Duration: An estate in the land is a time in the land or the land for a time so land can be split into slices of time. Illustration Simpson imagines a cake – the whole cake is the fee simple (time in land without end) but slices of cake can be taken out and passed to another; e.g. an estate for life, then get the cake back. This is a present right to present enjoyment. Case Law Walsingham Case1 (2) Time of enjoyment: Not only may the right to seisin be cut up into slices of time, but there may also be a present (alienable) right to a future enjoyment, when the person with the life estate has died. This is a present right to future enjoyment (but that right can still be transferred now to another); to get the cake back in the future. History It was formally known as the doctrine of tenure that concentrated on the quality of interests in land. It has its origin in the medieval theory in English law. After the Norman Invasion of 1066, the king acquired an ultimate ‘radical’ title to all the land in England (the government has similar title in Kenya). It followed that all subjects occupied their land on terms of grant acquired ultimately from the charity of the crown. The King determined who got the best prince for land depending on your benefit to him. (Benefits included service as Knights in his army, produce from the land, service to the Crown as well as other shows of fealty.) In such an arrangement it wasn’t clear what a tenant could say he ‘owned’ but answer was eventually found in the doctrine of estates. This doctrine gave expression to the idea that each landholder owned not land but a slice of time. Each estate comprised of time related segments- a temporal slice- of the rights and powers exercisable over the land. Types of Estates Estates are divided into two: (a) Free-hold Estates (b) Less than free-hold Estates (Lease-hold) Free-Hold Estates Definition Black defines Free-Hold Estates as â€Å"An estate in land held in fee simple, in fee tail, or for term of life; any real-property interest that is or may become possessory.† Bouvier defines free-hold estates as â€Å"An estate of freehold is an estate in lands or other real property, held by a free tenure, for the life of the tenant or that of some other person; or for some uncertain period. It is called liberum tenementum, frank tenement or freehold; it was formerly described to be such an estate as could only be created by livery of seisin, a ceremony similar to the investiture of the feudal law. But since the introduction of certain modern conveyances, by which an estate of freehold may be created without livery of seisin, this description is not sufficient.† (The term livery of seisin means simply  Ã¢â‚¬Å"transfer of possession†: livery means â€Å"delivery† and is from the Old French livrer, and seisin means â€Å"possession† and is from the Old French saisir or seisir. The concept behind livery of seisin, therefore, was the symbolic transfer of the possession of land. ) Summarily, this is an interest in land that a particular person holds and it is usually for an unlimited period of time and is passed on to his/her heirs according to the type of free-hold estate the owner had contracted into. TYPES OF FREE-HOLD ESTATES There are three types of Free-Hold Estates: (a) Fee-Simple Estate (b) Fee-Tail Estates (c) Life Estates A. Fee-Simple Estate Definition â€Å"Fee† refers to estates of inheritance while the word simple connotes possession by the heirs generally. Originally this was an estate which endured for as long as the original tenant or any of his heirs survived. ‘Heirs’ comprised any blood relations, although originally ancestors were excluded; not until the Inheritance Act 1833 could a person be the heir of one of his descendants. Thus at first a fee simple would terminate if the original tenant died without leaving any descendants or collateral blood relations (e.g. brothers or cousins), even if before his death the land had been conveyed to another tenant who was still alive. However, by 1306 it was settled that where a tenant in fee simple alienated the land, the fee simple would continue as long as there were heirs of the new tenant and so on, irrespective of any failure of the original tenant’s heirs, Thenceforward a fee simple was Virtually eternal.† 2 The estate in fee simple is the largest estate known to the law, ownership of such an estate being the nearest approach to ownership of the land itself which is consonant with the feudal principle of tenure, It is ‘the most comprehensive estate in land which the law recognises’; it is the ‘most extensive in quantum, and the most absolute in respect to the rights which it confers, of all estates known to the law’, Traditionally, the fee simple has two distinguishing features: first, the owner (‘tenant’ in fee simple) has the power to dispose of the fee simple,  either inter vivos or by Will; second, on intestacy the fee simple descends, in the absence of lineal heirs, to collateral heirs to a brother, for example, if there is no issue,†3 All fee simple estates in Kenya whether by initial grant or by conversion of long leases can be traces ultimately to the Crown Lands Ordinances of 1902, 1915 and the Government Lands Act4. Accordingly, their radical titles remain vested in the State. Accordingly, to H.W.O Okoth Ogendo5, the only practical implication of such conclusion is that where the fee simple cannot pass due to failure of issue, the estate will escheat to the State as the ultimate heir of all property rights in land. This is the effect of Section 8(A) (I) of the G.L.A6, which expressly preserves the doctrine. Types of Fee Simple Estates There are three types of fee simple estates: a) Fee Simple Absolute Definition Interests of rights are limited as against others but not as against the State. This means that ownership is exclusively enjoyed by the owner and is indefeasible by anyone other than the State b) Determinable Fee Simple Definition The Estates terminates automatically upon the occurrence of a specified event. Some of the terminologies used are â€Å"so long as†, â€Å"until† â€Å"during† â€Å"while† and others that denote duration. c) Conditional Fee Simple This has a stipulation attached to it by which the Estate may be cut short upon the occurrence of the said event. Some of the terminologies used are â€Å"but† â€Å"if† â€Å"on condition that† â€Å"provided that†. In Free-hold Estates is known as the â€Å"grantor† while the person being given the estate is known as the â€Å"grantee†. With Fee Simple Estates, there are certain terms used by the partakers of a Fee Simple Agreement such as: The person in possession, in remainder, in reversion: â€Å"In possession†: This denotes the person enjoying the property at that point in time â€Å"In Remainder† :This denotes the person waiting for his/her turn to enjoy the estate(s) â€Å"In Reversion†: This denotes the grantor who is waiting for the land to revert to him/her. B. FEE TAIL Fee here refers to a person’s hers/inheritors while â€Å"Tail† connotes that the land passes on to specific heirs based on gender, trait or other parameter as may be specified by the grantor. It is essentially an estate that is heritable only by specified descendants of the original grantee, and that endures until its current holder dies without issue. C. Life Estates pur autre vie (For the life of another) Here the estate is determined by a particular life,it could be that of the grantee or that of another individual for example the spouse. life estate (1888) A life estate for which the measuring lite – the life whose duration determines the duration of the estate – is someone’s other than the possessor’s. This is an estate, which subsists for the life of another and not of whom the property rights are/were vested. Thus if property is vested in A for the life of B, the estate will last for as long as B lives. But if B dies before A, the property reverts to B, the settler.7 The Kenyan position The foregoing classification of rights and interests in property has been imported/ into or inherited by Kenya, albeit with a few qualifications i.e. the fee tail estate is not relevant in Kenya. Accordingly we only have the fee simple estate. The fee tail estate disappeared in 1942 when the colonial government enacted the Trust of Land Act. This enactment was with one object – to abolish settlement. A settlement was a devise used in England to tie up Land within the family and accordingly, to control property. After the life estate, there is a remainder, which reverts back to the donor i.e. the fee simple. For continuity, the donor can transfer the property to another and another and eventually a tail, which however, will still have a reminder, which will revert to the donor. This situation was abolished by the Trust of Land Act8. This act defined a settlement as an attempt to create a settlement without exploiting the full estate i.e. The Fee Simple. Under the act, if a person attempts to do so, whatsoever is done will be converted  into a trust for sale. A settlement will be converted by Cap 290 into a trust. An equitable interest is an interest that lies behind a trust since it creates a settlement. A trustee can always dispose of the settlement subject to the rules of the trust. The Kenyan position is further made advent of the Absolute estate. This is purely a creature of the R.L.A9. Accordingly, the absolute estate under the R.L.A supersedes the fee simple estate existent under the ITPA. However its worth noting that under the ITPA, the fee simple estate remains to be the largest estate. We still have in Kenya, the customary estate i.e. an estate in land defined by customary law